EXPLORING HEAD AND DEPUTY HEAD TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS USING COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
BY
DARVESH KARIM
A dissertation submitted to the Board of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Education
(Educational Leadership and Management)
Karachi, Pakistan
May 15, 2009
TO: THE BOARD OF GRADUATE STUDIES
The members of the Dissertation Evaluation Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of …………………………… find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted.
______________________________
……………………
(Dissertation Supervisor)
________________________________
(Internal Examiner)
________________________________
(External Examiner)
Date: ------------------
DEDICATION
I DEDICATE THIS WORK TO MY PARENTS, MY YOUNGER BROTHER, MY WIFE AND MY CHILDREN. WITHOUT THEIR SUPPORT AND PRAYERS, THIS WORK WOULD HAVE BEEN VERY DIFFICULT TO ACHIEVE.
ABSTRACT
Attitudes play a very significant role in acceptance of any idea or innovation. Prior research studies have established the significance of computers and the attitude of head teachers which can either be a hindering factor or a facilitator for computer integration in education. To explore the attitudes of the head teachers in the Pakistani context, this study was conceptualised.
The major aim of the study was to determine the attitudes of head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan towards the use of computers in education, while the subsidiary aim was to explore the relationship between demographic characteristics of the participants and their attitude towards the use of computers in education.
A survey questionnaire was adopted from Pelgrum & Plump (1993) to gather data. Through this tool, a sample of 185 head teachers was assessed for their computer attitudes with four factors; perceived educational impact, perceived social impact, training needs and self confidence. The sample was drawn from the participants of the Educational Leadership and Management (ELM) course, offered as part of the Ed-Links project. The participants comprised a mix of rural and urban areas of Sindh and Balochistan.
The results show that the participants’ perceived attitude towards computers in education is positive. On individual sub-scales, participants’ perceived social impact of computers and their self confidence is found to be lower than the educational and training needs.
Correlation analyses revealed significant associations between the head teachers’ attitude towards computers in education and the use of computers and prior training. In sub-scales model, prior training contributes to the training needs’ model while use of computer, contributed to the self confidence model.
The study has highlighted the importance of providing computers to the head teachers in their offices and need for offering relevant training programmes for the head teachers and deputy heads from Sindh and Balochistan. Also, further research is needed to understand the relationship between attitudes towards computers and its actual use in schools.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I thank Almighty Allah for blessing me the opportunity, health, and the ability to complete this work. My words are insufficient to thank Him for all the mercy, guidance, and unlimited favours and blessings. Shukr-Alhamdulil-llah (Thanks God Almighty).
I am highly grateful to His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan, who is the 49th Spiritual Leader of Ismaili Muslims, for establishing such a glorious educational institutions like Aga Khan University Institute for Educational Development which enhanced my knowledge, skills and dispositions to handle educational issues and contribute to educational development. I had taken this opportunity of selection for M.Ed as a ‘Golden Jubilee Gift’ of His Highness The Aga Khan IV as July, 2007 to December, 2008 was the Golden Jubilee year of his Imamat.
It would be inappropriate if I do not appreciate and acknowledge AKU-IED for helping me graduate (which is the dream of every teacher of my context to become its graduate). Many, many thanks to AKU-IED, for its beautiful and peaceful campus with every facility available, necessary for learning and to sharpen minds. The well furnished and equipped computer labs, library and the classrooms with very attentive and caring staff members, who made me progressive and curious to learn. While, the world class AKU Sports & Rehabilitation Centre, which was a source of diminishing the mental exertion, also played a very crucial role during this period of two years.
As the two year journey of M.Ed. ends with my final dissertation as a final product, I look back at it and want to say thank you to all those nice people who touched my heart, who appreciated me, loved me, cared about me, inspired me, supported me, encouraged me and helped me. All my facilitators, my fellows and AKU-IED staff are the special people, who helped me to learn in one way or the other. Thank you so much for being supportive for me and I pray that in your life, every single day brings happiness, good health, prosperity, success, long life, peace to your lives and your loved ones. Thank you so much for being such wonderful personalities in my life.
My appreciation and deep hearted thanks go to the ever-opened-doors of offices and hearts of respected Directors AKU-IED, Dr. Mohammad Memon and Dr. Sadruddin Pardhan. You have always been a source of inspiration for me. Thank you very much.
Now I wish to acknowledge the direct support, assistance and encouragement of a number of people who have made this research possible.
First, my sincere appreciation goes to my parents, wife, children, younger brother and the rest of my family members for their continuous support and prayers throughout two years of my study.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisor …………, who vigorously devoted her precious time to supervise this work. She was so caring and supportive all the way from research proposal development and its presentation to the final write-up. I always found her feedback very constructive and encouraging. Thank you ………, for your kind support and encouragement. You are an ideal and exemplary mentor indeed!
I, very sincerely acknowledge and thank ……….., who was very much kind and sincere to guide me through the complicated SPSS analysis and interpretations of the statistics.
I would like to thank all my research participants for their participation in the study as well as who participated in the pilot phase of this project. Their courtesy and generosity with their time made this work enjoyable and possible.
Warm thanks to all my friends and colleagues of M.Ed 2009, for their intellectual, social and moral support which really improved my personal as well as professional capacities. In particular, sincere gratitude goes to my caring friends ………….. for their social and professional support and for their caring attitude. I wish all the best to ……….., CP M.Ed. 2010 for her sisterly behaviour and kindness. Her sincerity really touched my heart.
Lastly, I want to apologise, in case any of my words or actions offended my respected teachers, AKU-IED staff and my fellows.
I hope my efforts have been worthwhile.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the background, rationale, research questions, purpose of the study, and its significance. Definitions of the terms used in this research are also given.
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
The newly emerging trends of information and communication technology (ICT), which are rapidly influencing the neighbouring countries and the Western countries, are strongly taking roots in Pakistan. Pakistan is a developing country with a population of approximately more than 160 million and it ranked 134th out of 177 countries on the 2006 Human Development Index (UNDP, 2006). The ICT sector in Pakistan is growing, particularly from the educational perspective. Over the last years, however, provision of computers has been one of the major focus areas for the government. There is a growing realization among policy-makers that computers hold great potential to the extent that the government is encouraging the use of computers in education.
Technology is the medium for teaching and learning and ICT has distinct advantages that transcend the classroom environment. The vision laid down by Pakistan’s education policy is to have education for all its citizens and many programme s have been launched by the provincial as well as Federal Government to achieve these goals (National Education Policy, 2008). Yet, our country is behind others that have successfully developed ‘Knowledge Societies’.
The quality of any system is as good as its human resources. To improve education in Pakistan, the needs and skill set of our teachers, head teachers and administrators must be addressed holistically. Technology based teaching and learning can enhance teaching quality by supporting and reinforcing the innovative usage of technology integrated with academics. The effective use of technology will help educators to access a wide range of materials. Administrators will also benefit from ICT by using technology to access management resources and tools that can strengthen their decision making process (Dravis, 2003).
Before coming to the Institute for Educational Development (AKU-IED) Karachi to complete the Master of Education (M.Ed) degree, I was working as a head teacher in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. Before that I also worked as a teacher and spent some time using computers for teaching. As a computer teacher in the school, I worked with two to three head teachers, who either did not have any knowledge or had limited knowledge of computers. They were also reluctant to respond to my concerns regarding computers in education. I had to struggle hard to make them understand about the need and importance of computers in education. I observed that, the head teachers were not adequately prepared for their new role as technology leaders, and therefore they only struggled to achieve technical resources for the school, rather concentrating themselves, or involving teachers to use the available computers in meaningful ways with children. After becoming the in-charge of the school for a short period, I tried my level best to encourage the staff members to use computers for classroom instruction and administration. I gathered opinions from all the teaching staff about their willingness to get computer trainings, and on the basis of their strong willingness, I arranged in-house computer trainings and the participation was enthusiastic. After these short in-house trainings, I observed that the teachers were scheduling their classes (specifically for English and Social Studies) in the computer lab and students were also taking interest to learn. This approach helped me as well as the teachers to start getting the benefit of using computers in their regular teaching at a small level.
I also came across situations where the teachers or student-initiated computer projects have been undermined due to lack of support from the head teacher. After coming to AKU-IED, through my readings and discussions with colleagues, I learnt that head teachers have a critical role in educational innovations (Chin, 2000). Today’s head teachers are expected to not only manage the day to day activities of a school but also focus on students’ learning standards, data driven decision making and restructuring efforts. School leadership is in fact the key component in guiding the teaching-learning process necessary for preparing students with the relevant knowledge and skills in today’s society to become a productive citizen of the 21st century. One of the key competencies is related to the knowledge and skills of using ICT. Leadership can play a critical role to bridge the generation gap among the digital natives and the digital immigrants (Prensky, 2001a) by recognising the difference and initiating the proper technology intervention plans. According to Dinham (2005) leadership is important in developing effective, innovative schools and in facilitating quality teaching and learning through computers. Thus, school leadership has a responsibility for initiating and implementing school change through the use of computers to facilitate decisions about integration of computer into learning and teaching (Schiller, 2003).
In order to encourage the use of computers among the staff, head teachers’ own attitude towards using the technology matters a lot as attitudes influence not only head teachers’ initial acceptance of computer, but their future behaviour regarding computers. Researchers are of the opinion that awareness and attitudes toward computers, constitutes a crucial criterion in the evaluation of computer application and usage including the development of computer-based curricula (Woodrow, 1991; Kay, 1993; Robertson et al, 1995).
In Pakistan, the use of computers in education is increasing. The government sector is the largest provider of education in Pakistan. Federal Government has also stressed great emphasis on enhancing the scope and amount of computers in Education. In this regard, a project funded by United States Agency for International Development (USAID), ‘the links to learning: Education Support to Pakistan (ED-LINKS)’ is also working with the government on the issue of the computers in education. Apart from other activities of teaching learning process, ED-LINKS programme also includes up-gradation and establishment of Computer Labs in the selected government middle and secondary schools in Pakistan. ED-LINKS is working closely with the Ministry of Education and the Federal Directorate of Education (FDE) for effective implementation of target activities in the selected schools, functioning in four rural and one urban sectors of FDE. There are other similar projects which have provided funding to improve the ICT infrastructure in schools and also train teachers and head teachers for computer use. For all these efforts to be fruitful, it is necessary to determine the attitudes of the school heads towards the use of computers in education so as to develop an appropriate intervention programme.
The increase in computer use in the schools all over the world is underpinned by the intention to improve teaching and learning (Evans-Andris, 1996). Evans-Andris suggested that despite the availability of computers and its peripherals in schools, the success of the implementation of computers in schools depends on the users’ attitude. Therefore, understanding users’ attitude toward computers may help the integration of computers into the curriculum (Akyurekoglu, 2002) and daily schooling practices.
Attitudes influence not only head teachers’ initial acceptance of computer, but their future behaviour regarding computers. Head teachers’ attitude in supporting long lasting computer integration is very much critical. Much of the research literature has tended to overlook the attitude of the principal (Michael, 1998) and the head teacher’s current technology leadership capabilities. This gap in the research is unusual because many studies relating to school effectiveness, school improvement and change show that head teachers’ attitude play an important role in creating successful change in schools (Schiller, 2003).
In Pakistan, traditionally, head teacher is the centre of all school activities, so consideration of head teacher’s attitude should be integral to the efforts of educational computer usage. Conducting this study in Pakistan was especially important since the integration of computers into the Pakistani educational system is still not streamlined properly. To the best of my knowledge, there has been no published research that deals with Pakistani head teachers’ attitude towards the use of computers in school.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to determine the attitudes of the head and deputy head teachers from government schools in Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan, toward computer use in education. The second purpose is to investigate possible relationships between the respondents’ demographic characteristics and their attitude toward computers.
RESEARCH QUESTION
This study is intended to answer certain questions based on head/deputy head teachers’ attitude toward the use of computers in Pakistani schools. The research questions are;
· What are the attitudes of the head teachers and deputy head teachers of government schools from Sindh and Balochistan toward the use of computers in education?
· What are the demographic characteristics which contribute to the head teachers’ attitude towards computers?
SIGNI FICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is expected that the study is significant in the following ways:
This was the first study of its kind to be conducted in Pakistan. The study’s findings will be significant for the policy makers, curriculum planners, and particularly for the Ed-Links Project Team to plan appropriate professional development programme s for the head teachers in future.
The findings might also help the AKU-IED’s[1] faculty members teaching the ELM courses to develop appropriate computer integration programme s for the future cohorts.
The findings of the study also contribute to the research literature on the attitudes of schools’ heads in Pakistan.
The tool which has been used in this study was part of a larger study conducted in several countries. By using the tool in this research, I have tested the reliability and validity of the tool for Pakistan. Others could also use the tool to determine attitudes.
As a researcher, the study was significant for me as it enabled me to enhance my skills of conducting quantitative study in educational contexts.
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Attitude: Attitudes are evaluative statements, either positive or negative, concerning objects, people or events (Robbins & Judge, 2007, p. 74).
Attitude toward Computers: Refers to how the respondents feel about the educational and social impact of computer use in education. Also, it includes the perception about their self confidence and training needs for computer use.
Use of Computers in Education: This term refers to the use of a computer as a pedagogical or productivity tool to facilitate teaching, learning, and school administrative work.
Experience with Computers: It includes the information related to computer ownership, its availability in school, and prior training received.
ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
This thesis contains five chapters, a list of references, and appendices. The five chapters include: introduction, review of the literature, methodology, results, and conclusions.
Chapter one is the introduction. It addresses the background for the study and rationale, significance of the study, the research questions, and definition of key terms.
Chapter two provides a review of the related literature. It examines studies thematically related to the computer use into the schools and leadership role.
Chapter three focuses on the research methods for this study. This chapter highlights the procedures of identifying the population, sample, instrumentation, pilot study, limitations of the study and ethical considerations. It also addresses the process of data collection and analysis.
Chapter four presents the analysis of the results of the study.
Chapter five provides an overall summary of the research findings and provides a discussion and conclusion to the results.
SUMMARY
Attitudes contribute to the knowledge and behaviour that the change agents require to guide change efficiently. Understanding the attitudes of the school heads toward the use of computer in education in Pakistani government schools is likely to provide information for future intervention. Thus, this study seeks to explore the attitudes of the head teachers and deputy heads from government schools in Sindh and Balochistan towards the use of computers in education.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents a review of literature on topics related to my study. The review focuses on themes such as need for studying attitudes, findings from prior studies around the use of ICT and teachers and head teachers’ attitudes, role of the head teachers, and finally the impact of using ICT in education. The chapter concludes with a summary of the chapter.
ATTITUDE
The term attitude has been defined in a number of ways. Oppenheim (1966) define attitude as a state of readiness, a tendency to act or react in a certain manner when confronted with certain stimuli. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) cited in Abell and Lederman (2007) defines attitude as, “a general and enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or issue” (p.78). In other words, attitude is how we think and whether we lean toward the positive or negative. A positive attitude implies a way of thinking that is predominantly positive and optimistic. The opposite inclination, a negative attitude, is predominantly pessimistic. The type of attitude we hold affects the kind of life we live (Keller, 2000).
According to Aiken (1980), attitudes are “learned predispositions to respond positively or negatively to certain objects, situations, concepts, or persons” (p. 2). They can be thought of as a reflection of an individual’s global perspective on a topic and can be predictive of behaviour. Attitude is the way a person thinks about somebody or something and the way s/he behaves towards someone. It is her/her personal view or opinion of something. It also describes her/his general emotional approach to any person or situation. Attitude is a primary component of our mannerism. It is the foundation for achieving and maintaining a positive mental outlook. We see the world the way we are or should be. Our beliefs about others reflect back at us. A positive attitude is a person’s passport to a better tomorrow and a change in our attitude could lead to positive changes in our lives. Keller (2000) states that, “The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their attitudes of mind” (p.5).
A person may have a strong attitude for or against a certain issue and it can be explored through presenting the individual with an attitude questionnaire (Evans, 1965). An attitude is accompanied by a tendency to act in a particular way in given circumstances; it is sometimes possible to infer the attitudes of an individual from his/her response to a certain event or a situation (Evans, 1965).
INTEGRATION OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
Computers cannot be integrated into the classroom overnight. Technology integration includes different stages. Despite the increasing presence of computer hardware and software in schools and numerous workshops and training, the consistent integration of computers into a regular classroom is still a far cry from reality (CEO Forum, 2000).
Further more, Otto and Albion (2004) reported that although computers are now widely available in the schools, it does not integrate fully into teaching and learning. In line with this idea, Sheingold and Hadley (1990) pointed out that integrating technology is not about helping people to use computers but it is about helping teachers to integrate technology as a tool for learning. In fact, in the ideal teaching and learning setting, computers should be as transparent tool as a pencil. Therefore, technology integration in classrooms is more about teaching and learning than it is about computer hardware (Mills & Tincher, 2002).
The effectiveness of computer implementation can be measured, if educators consider that computers are only a means for teaching and learning. Tomei (2002) indicates that computers are only a means to an end and the benefits of computers depend upon how teachers use them. The use of computers in instruction involves two themes: instruction and computer use. Therefore, both instruction and the use of computers need to be effective in order to achieve the goal of enhanced teaching and learning (Coley, 1997).
The effective use and integration of computer into the curriculum is important, but as Cole (1999) indicates, one must not expect the computer by itself to improve education. Coley (1997) explains that the benefits of implementing computers as educational tools depend on the level and quality of computer implementation. The application of today’s computers in schools is not limited to drill and practice. Computers can be used for different applications, such as accessing information, publishing, communication, instruction supplements for teaching and learning, word processing, presentations, drawing and painting, and many more (Heide & Henderson, 1994). However, Clements (1997) notes that the benefits of using computers for teaching and learning may take time to become apparent.
Computer integration cultivates the modern potential of the youth, preparing them to step into a world where understanding of technology can help shape their success in the future. Young people today are entering a global economy, where they are being challenged to analyse information, collaborate and communicate their ideas using ever changing technology.
HEAD TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS COMPUTERS
Head teachers’ attitude toward computers influences the level of computer integration in schools. The relationship between the school leadership and the use of computer often plays an important role to encourage and facilitate the use of computers for administrative and managerial work (Visscher, 1996) as well as for instructional activities (Akker, Keursten & Plomp, 1992). Creemers (1994) refers to the concept of educational leadership, whereby school leaders can influence and improve what happens in the teaching/learning process. The extent to which school head teachers promote the use of computers in their schools probably depends on the degree to which they themselves consider the computer useful. Their views on this matter can be evident in a number of ways, such as how they incorporate computer into their own school tasks and the school policy measures that they effect to promote the incorporation of computer into their schools.
Several studies have identified the important role of the school principals in promoting computers integration in the school. Rhodes and Cox (1990), in a study of the use of computers in primary schools in London, found that there were many factors that influenced computer use in the schools, but on the top of the list was the attitude of the principal. Likewise, based on various research studies, a wide range of factors have been found to affect technology integration in the school. Of these, attitude of head teacher is the single most important factor affecting the successful integration of technology (Byrom & Bingham, 2001).
Studies show that head teachers play an important role for promoting computer use in schools and classrooms. Their attitude and support is highly related to the schools having the climate and environment where teachers are able to use computers in their classrooms (Dupaggne & Krendl, 1992; Pelgrum, 1993; Pelgrum & Plomp, 1991a; Pruett et al., 1993; Sherman, 1998). Research studies have shown that schools’ head teachers who have a positive attitude toward the use of computers support teachers to use them in schools (Wolf, 1993), which could lead to a positive change in teachers’ attitude also.
Pelgrum (1993) confirmed that the correlation of the attitude for using computers in schools between teachers and head teachers is positive. Akker, Keursten and Pelgrum (1992) concluded that school head teachers having positive attitude for the computers reported a higher frequency of stimulation of computer use by the school authorities than those who have less positive attitudes.
Head teachers with more positive attitude for using computers tended to emphasise the impact, purposes, and integration of computers in the schools and encourage teachers to use computers more. Pruett et al. (1993) also found that teachers whose head teachers or supervisors encouraged them to use computers made it possible to use them in their instruction. They also provided more opportunities of in-service programme s for teachers. The tendency to use computers was formed positively.
Support and training of personnel was helpful for teachers’ use of computers and motivated them to use more and deeply (Becker, 1994). Support from head teachers and administrators are very important, because of offering adequate training, hardware and software, and time to plan in order to promote and motivate teachers to integrate computers into curriculum.
Wilmore and Betz (2000) have concluded that that “Information Technology will only be successfully implemented in schools if the head teacher, actively supports it, learns as well, provides adequate professional development and supports his/her staff in the process of change” (p.15). Hence, head teachers are one of the key leaders of change at the school level. Their actions, interests and attitude can have a profound impact on programme change and instructional practice. Therefore, effective head teachers must have a positive attitude towards computers and knowledge.
The vision of getting the schools ready and up to date with the use of educational technology in the classroom could not be completed without the commitment and readiness of the head teachers. Leadership is a key component in guiding the teaching-learning process necessary for preparing today’s students with relevant knowledge and skills in today’s society to become a productive citizen of the 21st century. According to Dinham (2005), leadership is important in developing effective, innovative schools and in facilitating quality teaching and learning. Today’s principals must not only manage the day to day activities of a school but also focus on student learning, standards, data driven decision making and restructuring efforts.
As stated above, the principals play an integral role in technology integration (Wilmore & Betz, 2000). This role is crucial in helping teachers create today’s ideal learning environment for students. In line with this idea, Wilmore and Betz (2000) stated that “Information Technology will only be successfully implemented in schools if the principal actively supports it, learns as well, provides adequate professional development and supports his/her staff in the process of change” (p. 15). As the research clarifies computer use and attitude towards computer is very much interlinked. Hence, principals are one of the key leaders of change at the school level. Their actions, interests and self-efficacy can have a profound impact on programme change and instructional practice. Therefore, Studying head teachers’ attitude towards an innovation is important to understand the state of readiness for change.
ROLE OF THE HEAD TEACHER IN CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Change is a natural phenomenon and the trends that are influencing the world are also leaving their impression on Pakistan. Education is no exception; with the beginning of computer integration in education, there is a need to equip the teachers and students with 21st century skills required to succeed in knowledge based economy.
According to Fullan (2003), no successful large-scale change or school reform effort has advanced very far without the support of the school leaders. Similarly, Schiller (2003) stated that the “principals have a key role to play in the facilitation of educational change” (p. 4). Schiller (2003) concludes in his research that head teachers who take an active approach and attitude to innovation can foster an environment that has greater benefits for their students and staff. Hence, head teachers’ attitude, awareness and use of computer are essential for effective use and integration of computers in the school (Smith, 1999). Therefore, successful computer development within the school will require the leader with positive attitude towards technology. For the effectiveness and sustainability of computer integration, head teachers’ attitude and their awareness in the use of technology is very much essential.
School principals have a major responsibility for initiating and implementing school change through the use of computers and therefore facilitate complex decisions about integration of computer into learning and teaching (Schiller, 2003).
As it has already been proved through different researches that involvement of head teacher in computer integrating in schools has brought better outcomes (Schiller, 2003). Literature further clarifies that head teachers are the main sources of intervention in terms of computers integration. The study of Schiller (1991) highlights the positive attitude of school head teachers in helping their staff in better use of computers to enhance teaching and learning and to assist with administration and management. While another research of Allan, Law, and Wong, (2003) indicate that to ensure the successful integration of computers in school, cooperation between school leadership and teachers is essential.
In the age of information technology, head teachers must be able to integrate computer into their daily practice and to provide consistent and positive leadership for technology use in the teaching-learning process. In fact, they must be technology leaders. According to Hope, Kelly and Guyden (2000) technology leadership involves both understanding the technologies and how they can be applied to accomplishing tasks. If head teachers’ attitude towards computer is better then they will be able to promote a school culture which encourages exploration of new techniques in teaching, learning and management (Schiller, 2003). Therefore, schools need leaders who can facilitate the change process and support a learning community for technology integration.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPUTER USE AND ATTITUDES
It has been proved through researches that without the active participation of head teacher and teachers, successful integration and implementation of computer in schools will not happen. Studies have identified many factors affecting the computer integration. In several studies, the demographic variables that moderately affect the proper integration of computers in education are found to be gender, age, professional rank, academic background, and subject taught (Payette, 1987; Inch, 1987; Vakalis, 1990) while the variables that strongly affect computer use include attitude, computer ownership and training (Roark, 1985; Anderson, 1987; Inch, 1987; Vakalis, 1990; Sutherlin, 1990). Following is the discussion of some researches done in this regard.
· Gender
Gender and attitude toward computer use has been the focus of many studies resulting in three types of outcomes; i.e. no difference at all among gender, difference with male more positive attitude and difference with female more positive attitude.
Jacobson and Weller (1987) found an uneven correlation between age and frequency of use. Old age was found negatively correlated with computer anxiety, however no significant correlations were found with gender of the respondents. Likewise Altun (2008) and Akbulut (2008) explored that on comparing scores of male and female they did not found any difference in terms of attitudes toward computer.
However, mostly the research on gender and computing has often reported, though not categorically, that males have more experience and make more use of computers (Brosnan & Lee, 1998; Balka & Smith, 2000). The research (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1993) had also suggested giving some more attention to females who seem, on the whole to be somewhat less positive about the educational impact of using computers than their male colleagues.
It is usual to consider the issue of gender in the context of other user variables such as social impact, self confidence, educational impact, and training needs. For example, Chua, Chen and Wong (1999) and Coffin and Mackintyre (2000) in their analyses on the relationships between computer attitudes, computer self efficacy and computer experience stated that most findings usually reinforce the gender effects and suggested that greater levels of computer experience are associated with lower computer experience and more positive computer attitudes. Females usually also have more negative attitudes towards computers (Durndell & Thompson, 1997) than males. Some other previous researches, like Margolis and Fisher (2002) and Markauskaite (2006) found significant differences in computer attitudes by gender. For example, Houtz and Gupta (2001) found that males and females had rated themselves on their ability to use the computer in significantly different ways. Studies have suggested that the male image of the computer has deterred females from benefiting from the technology and this has made them less confident or more anxious (Culley, 1988), resulting in females holding more negative attitudes to computers than males (Campbell, 1990). In the same line the researches of Askar and Davenport (2009), Işman and Çelikli (2009) also found that there is a significance difference between males and females. These studies showed that males are more confident comparing to females.
Bauer (2000) examined female pre-service teachers’ perceptions toward gender differences in the learning and use of computers and found that most surveyed female pre-service teachers believe that male teachers have more knowledge and skills about computers than female. The author also found that female teachers demonstrated frustration and low confidence with the use of computers as a tool for teaching and learning.
According to Lockard and Abrams (2001), female college students show lower confidence and greater anxiety about computers than males. There is much good evidence that males and females differ both in terms of amount of computer exposure in school and in terms of the types of technology-based activities they typically choose to undertake.
The third type of findings which indicate difference with female more positive attitude. Forcier (1996) indicates that the stereotype that Math and Science are masculine subjects started in the 17th century. From that time, when educational institutions were controlled by men, until the 20th century, Math and Science were seen as male domains. Bromfield et al. (2001) indicate that since computers have been associated more with Mathematics and Science curricula, the stereotype has spread into computer use as well. Now, gender is often cited as an important factor in computer use. Shelly et al. (2002) provide reasons for females’ involvement in computer fields is less than that of males’, therefore, there are gender differences in attitudes and use of computers. Bauer (2000) suggests that female students are not encouraged to become computer literate. However, he indicates that research does not support the idea that female students are less capable than males to learn computer use. According to Shelly et al. (2002), an MIT study found that female students in the computing fields are just as competent as males, but there are more male students in those fields. In some studies, females’ attitudes were found to be less favourable towards computer (Jacobson and Weller, 1987; Margolis & Fisher, 2002; Markauskaite, 2006). However, Hashim and Mustapha’s (2004) found that female respondents were having statistically significant positive attitude towards computers than male respondents, while the same findings were also explored by Fančovičová and Prokop (2008).
· Age
Yuen (1988) found significant differences in teachers’ attitude among various age groups. Also, prior training and the availability of computers was reported to have an impact on their attitude. These findings were also confirmed by Jacobson and Weller (1987) and they also found an uneven correlation between age and frequency of use. Almost all the respondents in their twenties and forties reported frequent computer use, while those in thirties and fifties reported less frequent computer use. No explanations were proposed for this. In the same study, the frequency of use by women (76.2%) was found nearly equal to that of the men (78.4%). Old age was found negatively correlated with computer anxiety; however, no significant correlations were found with gender of the respondents.
· Computer Use, Trainings and Self Confidence
Computer attitudes and computer self-confidence have been recognised as important factors in assisting individuals integrating computer into education. For example Lawton and Gerschner (1982) described that the successful use of computers in the classroom depends on the teachers’ attitudes and self-confidence. Yuen, Law and Chen (1999) also identified teachers’ positive attitudes toward computers as an important factor in fostering computer integration and the enhancement of quality learning and teaching using computers. This was further supported by Kluever et al. (1994) as they pointed out that teachers’ attitude towards computers, affect their instructional use of computers and probability of profiting from training. According to Kenzie, Delecourt and Power (1994) computer self-confidence is predictive of future engagement with computer affecting future use only through their effect on self-confidence. Also Karsten and Roth (1998a), Langfords and Reeves (1998) showed that higher levels of computer self-confidence corresponded to greater achievement of computer competence among other things.
Evans-Andris (1996) identified that individuals who lack computer knowledge and skills may feel less confident about computers. This finding was also confirmed by Boyd (1998), as he suggests that the lack of computer skills could result in increased fear of computers. Apart from the fact that both computer attitude and self-confidence are necessary prerequisites for computer use in schools, it does seem that factors affecting them are also similar. Summers (1990) identified lack of knowledge and experience in the computing area as one of the most common reason for individuals’ negative attitudes towards computer.
To enhance computer knowledge and skills and ultimately to increase the positive attitude towards computer, Bork (1985) has proposed six areas of computer knowledge including social implications of the computer, strengths and weaknesses of computers, ability to learn more about computers, common computer applications, knowledge of programming and critical attitudes about computing, while Johndon, Anderson, and Habsen (1980), also identified six areas of computer knowledge: hardware, programming, software and data processing, applications, impact, and affective consideration of attitudes, values and motivation.
Some studies (Ogletree & Williams, 1990) suggest that prior experience with computers may determine interest and depth of involvement with computing by the time a student gets to the higher grade levels.
· Computer Ownership, Attitude and Self Confidence
Shields (1986) concluded that being an active user, having programming experience, and having used a computer before entering college were the most important predictors of favourable attitudes toward computers. Shields also identified computer ownership as another important predictor that contributed to favourable attitudes toward computer.
Rochelau (1995), Levin and Girdon (1989), Nichols (1992), Perkins (1995) have stressed that there is a strong existence of a relationship between ownership of computer and attitudes towards computer. Furthermore Yildir and Tsong (2001) identified computers access as an important factor in computer attitudes. This was further supported by Jegede and Owolabi (2004). All of these factors also appear related to computer self-confidence. For example, Jegede (2007) identified access and computer ownership as factors in computer self-confidence among educators. The relationship of computer experience with self-confidence had also been examined: Harrison and Rander (1992) obtained that people with prior computer experience would have higher self-confidence than those without such experience. This position had earlier been supported by Hill, Smith and Mann (1987). It thus becomes reasonable to expect that positive relationship will exist between computer attitude and self-confidence. A substantial amount of work has been done investigating the relationship between computer self-confidence and attitude. (Igbaria & Persuraman, 1989; Necessary & Parish, 1996).
SUMMARY
Computers helped the world a lot and it is also helpful to take a large step into the future. Education uses computer to educate students better. We can see how the computers changed today’s society. Everyone is impacted by this remarkable device. However, Pakistan is in the initial phase of computers’ integration in education and now it is evident and clear that computers are readily becoming the part of everyday lives of our schools. So, schools and leadership should be ready to bridge the gap between the way students are taught in the classroom and the way the students obtain knowledge in society at large.
In this chapter I have tired to present the role of computer in education through the evidence of researches done in this regard. It has been explicitly agreed by researchers that computers may be used as a tool to solve problems more efficiently or, in fact, it can determine major changes in education. For integrating computers into school, it is necessary to redefine pedagogical goals, restructure the trainings to create positive attitude towards computer among teachers as well as the leadership.
It is important to remember that even if computer use can provide schools with the opportunity to improve their education and can offer students new and exciting methods of learning. Computers need to be used effectively in order to benefit from their capabilities. Sherman (1998) indicates that the most effective way for computers to be used efficiently is to ensure that school leadership integrates computers into the curriculum and provide the necessary support for teachers.
Keeping the current situation of Pakistani context where head teacher is the main player of school and through literature it is very much clear that the relationship between school leadership and the use of computer, often plays an important role to encourage and facilitate the use of computers within their schools for administrative and managerial work (Visscher, 1996) as well as for instructional activities (Akker, Keursten & Plomp, 1992). It refers to the concept of educational leadership (Creemers, 1994), whereby school leaders can influence and improve what happens in the teaching/learning process. It has been identified that attitude towards computer has been influenced by different factors like, age, gender, use of computer, computer ownership and trainings. Appropriate computer trainings have been identified by researchers and if change is constant in the world of education, then building capacity at all levels and across all domains may provide some of the solutions to the problems regarding computer integration in education.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides an outline of the methodological approaches used in conducting the research. It describes the research design, the sample and sampling procedure, research instrument and its piloting phase, entry negotiation process, data collection and analysis procedures and ethical considerations. Reliability of the study is also discussed.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The purpose of my study was to describe the attitudes of the head teachers toward the use of computers in education. Also, I was interested in identifying the relationship, if any, between the attitude, and the demographic characteristics. Accordingly, I opted for quantitative approach, which seemed to be the most practical method for this study. Within the quantitative paradigm, descriptive design seemed most appropriate as it aims to identify what a situation is like and the direction in which it is going (Punch, 1998). There was no manipulation of variables required in the study and it only aimed at describing the current attitudes and existing relationships between the variables. So, survey design seemed most appropriate to address the research question which requires studying attitudes.
Attitudes deal more directly with the nature of people’s thoughts, opinions, perceptions (Shanghnessy & Zecheister, 1997). Thus, asking directly from individuals, through an attitudinal survey research method was also the most logical method for gathering information on attitudes (May, 2003). According to Fink and Kosecoff (1998) “survey is a method of collecting information directly from the people about their ideas, feelings… beliefs and social, educational… background” (p.1). This design also allowed me to get information from a large number of respondents through the questionnaire method, which is widely used as a useful research instrument for collecting survey information and provide structured and numerical data, within a short period of time (Cohen, Manion & Marrison, 2000). Merchant (1992) articulates, “A questionnaires is a research instrument through which the research determines the extent to which the respondents had a particular attitude or perspective” (p.44).
My research required collecting data at a single point in time; hence I selected a cross-sectional survey as it produces a ‘snapshot’ of a population at a particular point in time (Cohen, Manion & Marrison, 2000). An additional advantage of this, according to Fraenkel and Wallen (2006), was that it was quicker to conduct and cheaper to administer.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Good sampling achieves representativeness (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001) and is considered to find ways to give all population members an equal chance of being selected and one of these is to use the probability methods for choosing a sample (Bryman, 2004).
· Study Sample
Samples selected through probability sampling techniques are more likely to be representative of the population they are drawn from and thus the likelihood of generalising from sample to population increases (Zakkula, 1999). Keeping this criterion in mind, the participants in this research were drawn from the three cohorts of the ‘10 Week Certificate programme for head teachers and deputy head teachers’ at AKU-IED (N=220). The sample comprised of both male and female participants. For Ed-Links’ project, AKU-IED has developed this course. The course consisted of eight different modules about teaching learning processes. All these CPs were treated as the representative samples, as they were identified by the respective DEOs – District Education Officers, keeping the future facilitation by equal sharing to the said districts, and equitable number of male and female participants and their needs in view. In this course the head teachers and deputy head teachers from the Government Schools of Balochistan and Sindh took part in three different cohorts. Specifically from Balochistan, the participants came from Qilla Abdullah, Qilla Saifullah, Pishin, Loralai, Sibi, Bolan, Jaffarabad, Khuzdar, Awaran, Panjgoor and Kech and from Sindh the participants came from Khairpur, Shikarpur, Mirpurkhas, Sukkur, Dadu, Jamshoro, Jacobabad, Sanghar, Kashmore, Nawabshah and Tharparkar.
Although these participants received short training to use computers as part of the ELM course at AKU-IED[2], it was limited to the development of their basic computer skills. Thus, knowledge or experience with computers was not a criteria for selection. Rather, the choice of the sample was based on the following:
Head teachers participating in the Ed-Links project were the representative of the target population, i.e. head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan.
Most of the respondents were available (54.54%, n=120) in AKU-IED’s campus so the response rate was expected better.
ACCESS
To approach my research participants, I first obtained the permission from the Coordinator ED-LINKS Project, at AKU-IED. I approached the project office with research details and asked for permission which was generously granted. Permission request letter and approval mail from the concerned authorities are enclosed as Appendices A1 & A2.
INSTRUMENT
To explore the attitudes towards computers, I adopted the questionnaire developed by Pelgrum and Plomp, (1993) which was initially tested and validated in England, Germany, Greece and Netherlands. Then the tool was used as a part of a larger study in several countries including China and India (Appendix B1). The findings of the study confirmed the validity and reliability of this questionnaire.
I found the adopted questionnaire relevant to the purpose of my study for the following reasons:
The items were relevant with clear wordings as “a good questionnaires not only provides a valid measure of the research questions but also gets the cooperation of respondents and elicit accurate information” (Robinson, 2002, p.242).
This questionnaire was designed not only for the head teachers but also for the students and teachers. Hence, the statements were according to the understanding level of any grade, in a simple language and with very clear wordings.
Furthermore, the appearance of the questionnaire is also important (Cohen, Manion & Marrison, 2000), and its appearance looked easy, attractive and interesting.
Not only appearance looked okay, but also the items were relevant to my research question and in the words of Balnaves and Caputi (2001), I found the questionnaire as an ‘ambassador’ for my research project.
The items of the questionnaire for this study were restricted items (Turney & Robb, 1971). This type of items forces respondents to select an answer from a given set of options which facilitates data analysis procedures and enhances the consistency of the data.
· Description of the Questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of 30 items divided into two parts. Part A with ten items requested general demographic information while Part B with 20 items measured the attitudes toward computers. Further details on the questionnaire are provided below.
Part A: Demographic and Background Information = 10 Items
In this section participants were asked to provide information about their work experience, gender, age, highest level of education, and did they own a computer, whether the school is located in an urban or rural area, to which province does their school belong, do they use a computer and have they got any formal computer training. All these variables were treated as independent variables, and used for comparison and to identify the co-relation with attitudinal components during data analysis.
Part B: Attitude Towards Computer = 20 Items
This section consists of 20 items. Of these 20 items, 18 were phrased positively and two were phrased negatively. As in the original questionnaire, these statements corresponded to four main dimensions of attitude toward computers in education, namely;
‘Perceived Educational Impact’ which composed of six items.
‘Perceived Social Impact’ was the second component composed of four items.
‘Training needs’ was third component with five items.
‘Self Confidence level’ was fourth component composed of four items.
‘Others’ was the last component which was composed of one item.
This tool employed a 5-point Likert scale to explore the degree of attitude. Head teachers were asked to rank their attitude towards computers ranging from 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree).
· Urdu Translation of the Tool
The questionnaire was in English. However, the school heads included in my sample were from the Government schools where mainly Urdu is taught and understood, as Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. While they also use Sindhi and Balochi as their local languages. However, Urdu is the commonly understood language all over Pakistan. So, translating the instrument for this study was necessary to ensure an easy and clear understanding of the respondents. I translated the questionnaire into Urdu and asked some colleagues to translate it as well. I then requested some colleagues to back-translate into English in order to double-check the accuracy of the translation. This was an important step because between the original language and another language there often exist cultural gaps (Fink & Kosecoff, 1998). According to Behling and Law (2000), the correctness of the instrument’s translation is necessary to maintain its validity and reliability.
PILOT PHASE
Oppenheim (1992) argues, “It is essential to pilot every question, every question sequence, every inventory and every scale in your study” (p.49). Although, the tool used in the study had questions that appear relevant to the local context of Pakistan; the tool has not been used in Pakistan. Therefore, there was a need to pilot it before going into the real research. The purpose of the piloting stage was to “get the bugs out of the instrument so that the subjects in the main study should experience no difficulties in completing it” (Bell, 1993). The translated version of questionnaire (Appendix B2) was piloted to check its construct and internal validity in the context of Pakistan. Also ambiguity in the self-completion questionnaire was identified (Bryman, 2004). A preliminary test of the questionnaire helped to identify problems and benefits associated with the design (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001) and to get a better understanding of the frame of reference relevant to the questionnaire and question wordings.
Pilot testing was done with ten course participant (CPs) of the M.Ed. programme, Educational Leadership and Management (ELM) specialization area (class of 2010) at AKU-IED. I distributed the translated questionnaire along with item-wise relevancy check list (Appendix B3) to verify the statements and words if they were ambiguous and also the amount of time they would take in completing the questionnaire. After completion of the questionnaire, I talked to all ten CPs of M.Ed. 2010 individually for the clarification of following:
· the time taken to complete the questionnaire.
· the clarity of the instructions.
· the clarity of the questions.
· were any questions too personal or objectionable.
· was any obvious topic or question omitted.
· was the layout of the questionnaire attractive and clear.
· any other comments that would be useful.
The pilot testing identified a need to change the Urdu meaning of the words, like ‘valuable tool’, ‘effectively’, ‘achievement’, ‘productivity’ and ‘creativity’ and some other words as well. For Urdu translation of these words and phrasing the items in Urdu, mainly literary Urdu was used, whereas the language of daily use is slightly different and common understanding becomes a bit tricky. This testing helped me to identify these confusing terms and phrases as the group thought, were difficult to answer. I modified the identified words and phrases in questionnaire accordingly by replacing the literary Urdu words with daily use words and phrases. It is important to point out that modifications made, did not result in changes in content but only in the choice of words in Urdu without disturbing its original meaning.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
After obtaining clearance of research proposal from AKU’s Ethical Review Committee, data collection process took place between December 2008 till February 27, 2009. A detailed Time frame schedule is enclosed as Appendix C. The questionnaire was administered in two ways:
- direct administration
- through post
· Direct Administration
To conduct the survey delivering the questionnaire to respondents and asking them to complete the questionnaire on their own is a common method (Gorard, 2001). In another words, a commonly used method is to visit each respondent, explain them the questionnaire, leave it with the respondent to be completed, and then return later to pick up the completed questionnaire and review it with the respondent. This technique offers obtaining a large amount of data quickly and inexpensively.
Keeping the above process of direct administration in mind, data generation took place with the research participants of cohort one (n=65, 29.54%) and cohort two (n=55, 25%) when they were at AKU-IED for three weeks of their face to face sessions. During tea and lunch breaks, I contacted the CPs in their classes, in cafeteria and in the social area of AKU-IED. After introducing myself and my research study either individually or in groups. I asked for their voluntary participation in my study. I also shared a two page research information sheet for more information on the project (Appendix B4) and a consent letter (Appendix B5). Through frequent meetings and verbal communication I was able to explain to them the purpose of my research. The fact that I was a student like them seemed to put them at ease. Finally I distributed the questionnaire among all the course participants of cohort one and two. I frequently remained in touch with them during the breaks and emphasise d that it was not a test so there were no right or wrong answers but they should attempt it to provide their honest opinions. They were asked to indicate the level of their agreement with each statement and to answer as honestly as possible. I requested all the participants to fill the questionnaire in their free time and return it within few days. For all this process, I was personally present throughout the data collection process. After the data collection, I personally thanked for their participation.
Perhaps it was the result of all those endeavours that helped me to get maximum response rate (100%, n=120). Since the respondents were all on campus, I found direct administration to be a cost effective way in terms of time and finance to gather the data.
· Through Post
The third cohort (n=100, 45.45%) of my research participants, who were not accessible to me during my data collection period at AKU-IED. Thus, I had to manage a mailing system. So, consent forms and questionnaires were mailed with a covering letter/research information sheet explaining the purpose of the questionnaire and stressing the need for completing the questionnaire and the anonymity of replies (May, 2001). I also enclosed a stamped, addressed return envelope for respondents’ for their convenience in returning the completed questionnaire (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000). There were no codes or identification marks on the questionnaires. All questionnaires were treated confidentially, and only an identification number on return was written on each questionnaire. The number was used to recognise the respondents for follow-up, like to check from the respondents’ list those, who have responded and who haven’t yet, then for reminders and for thanks. Right after six days of my initial mail, return of responses started. I was provided the full names and addresses of the research participants by Ed-Links Project office along with their telephone/mobile numbers. I used the land line telephone to remind for the return mail and to thank the respondents who had already dispatched the questionnaires. I also used mobile text messages to thank the participants who had mobile contacts available.
DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
On return of the completed questionnaire, they were indexed using a code number indicating the cohort and the number to identify the individual like GI-1 (First respondent of Group/Cohort One) and as on GII-1 or GIII-1. This index was to be used to locate data at a later date if the need arose and specifically for reminders.
The nature of this study required descriptive statistics as the primary method for analysing the data. The data collected for this study were analyse d using the latest version available (version 16.0) of the statistical software SPSS – (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) which according to Gaur & Gaur (2006) is the most reliable software for analysing quantitative data, for frequencies, percentages, cross tabulation and descriptive statistics. MS Excel was also used for the preparations of graphs to show the comparison among variables.
Following is the step by step process of data analysis;
· Data Entry
I created a data set by defining the variables, attaching labels and entering the pre-coded responses. The code for missing data was ‘99’ and for ‘invalid’ or ‘not applicable’ the code was ‘98’.
· Data Cleaning
After data entry, data cleaning is as important as the need to proof-read text for errors (Robson, 2002). I carried-out data cleaning by checking the data for errors which could have been made while ‘keying in’ the data. After simple eye-balling of the data for any visible variance, I conducted univariate analysis to explore each variable separately in my data set and to look at the range as well as the central tendency of the values (Field, 2005). It also helped me to describe the pattern of response to the variable.
· Analysis
The process of data analysis involved assigning numerical values to the categorical responses. The population variables of age, level of education, level of work experience, computer use, computer training, gender and their locality was given numeric values to add in data analysis. In this study before analysis, the negative items were reversed coded in order that meaningful analyses at the sub-scale level could be conducted. Table one shows the complete range of questions asked and items reversed are marked as * (asterisks) for analysis purpose.
TABLE 1 - ITEMS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE
1
Educational Impact
EI-1
Computers are valuable tools for improving the quality of a child’s education.
2
EI-2
Using computers in class leads to more productivity among students.
3
EI-3
Students are more attentive when computers are used in class.
4
EI-4
Computers help to teach more effectively.
5
EI-5
Computers in school enhance students’ creativity.
6
EI-6
The achievement of students can be increased when using computers for teaching.
7
Social Impact
SI-1
Working with computers in class distorts the social climate.*
8
SI-2
Computers have become too dominant.*
9
SI-3
Computers harm relations between people.*
10
SI-4
Social contacts are negatively affected by the use of computers.*
11
Training Needs
TN-1
I try to keep informed about technological changes.
12
TN-2
I would like to take part in a computer course to learn more about computers.
13
TN-3
In-service training courses about computers should be made compulsory.
14
TN-4
I would like to learn more about computers as teaching aids.
15
TN-5
I don’t mind learning about computers.
16
Self Confidence
SC-1
Advanced technical equipment has proved difficult for me to get along with.*
17
SC-2
I think I can (or could learn how to) write programme s on the computer.
18
SC-3
It would take too much time to learn how to use a computer successfully.*
19
SC-4
I am afraid computers are too complicated for me to handle.*
20
Others
Others
I feel uneasy thinking of a future with computes and robots controlling me.*
* Item for which scoring is reversed.
· Analysis Procedure for Research Question One
The demographic variables data for this study was in discrete form (nominal and ordinal); therefore, descriptive statistics was used to run for frequencies, mean and standard deviation (Coakes, 2005). The descriptive analysis included generating mean scores, frequencies, percentages, and graphs. In addition to the descriptive analysis 20 attitudes scores and sub-scores was continuous data (interval or scale); hence, a non-parametric analysis was used such as t-test, to determine whether there is a significant difference between two sets of mean scores, and ANOVA to explore the significance level of three or more than three mean scores.
· Analysis Procedure for Research Question Two
To explore the relationship between the demographic characteristics and the attitudes, a correlation matrix was produced which shows relationship between two variables in a linear fashion (Coakes, 2005). Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was also employed to test the normality of the distribution for total and sub-scale scores. The results reveal (Table 2) that data were not normally distributed at either total or sub-scale level. Therefore, non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney and Spearman’s correlation coefficient) were used to compare the two groups.
TABLE 2 - TESTS OF NORMALITY
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Statistic
Df
Sig.
Educational Impact.
.153
184
.000
Social Impact.
.133
184
.000
Training Needs.
.183
184
.000
Self Confidence.
.090
184
.001
Overall
.065
185
.053
Lastly to explore and identify the significant contributing factors toward computer attitude, multiple regression models were used.
The key terms, definitions and coding for the variable are defined in Table three.
TABLE 3 - DEFINITIONS AND CODING FOR THE VARIABLES
Variable
Conceptual definition
Operational definition
Coding
Experience
Number of years experience as Head/Deputy Head Teacher.
Item 1
1 = less than 1 year 2 = 1-5 years,
3 = 6-10 years 4 = 11 years or more
Gender
Sex of respondent
Item 2
1 = Male 2 = Female
Age
Chronological age
Item 3
1 = 30 years or less 2 = 31-40 years,
3 = 41-50 years, 4 = 51-60 years,
5 = 61 years or over
Degree
Highest degree earned
Item 4
1 = Bachelor’s Degree, 2 = B.Ed.
3 = Master’s Degree, 4 = M.Ed.
5 = Ph.D.
Own a computer
Ownership of a computer at home.
Item 5
1 = No 2 = Yes
Computer in Office
Availability of a computer at office.
Item 6
1 = No 2 = Yes
School location
School is located in Urban or Rural area.
Item 7
1 = Urban Area 2 = Rural Area
School situated
School is situated in the province of Sindh or Balochistan
Item 8
1 = Sindh 2 = Balochistan
Computer usage
Use of a computer
Item 9
1 = No 2 = Yes
Computer course
Completed a formal computer course.
Item 10
1 = No 2 = Yes
Educational Impact
Attitude towards Computer
Item 11 – 16
(6 items)
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Social Impact
Attitude towards Computer
Item 17 – 20
(4 items)
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Training Need
Attitude towards Computer
Item 21 – 25
(5 items)
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Self Confidence
Attitude towards Computer
Item 26 – 29
(4 items)
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Others
Attitude towards Computer
Item 30
(1 item)
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
RELIABILITY
Reliability is an important psychometric characteristic of measuring an instrument (Punch, 2005 cited in Rodrigues, 2006). It provides and estimate of the extent to which studies can be replicated using a tool (Wiersma, 1995).
Internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha was estimated by correlating performance on each item with overall score, and estimating the internal consistency of the instrument (Rodrigues, 2006). So, the internal consistency using Cronbach alpha was estimated on all four sub-scales of attitude (Tabel 4). Alpha values ranged from α=0.60 to α=0.86 with a mean of 0.80 indicating that internal consistency of the questionnaire is approaching adequate consistency (George & Mallery, 2003; and Dr Philip Nagy[3] (Personal Communication, March 20, 2009) for an attitudinal survey scale as seen in Table four:
TABLE 4 – RELIABILITY STATISTICS
S.No
Categories
Cronbach’ s Alpha
N of Items
1
Educational Impact
0.86
6
2
Social Impact
0.70
4
3
Training Needs.
0.81
5
4
Self Confidence
0.60
4
5
Overall.
0.80
19
LIMITATIONS
Like every research, this study had limitations. I acknowledge that following were the limitations of this study.
· Social Desirability
Surveys provide only the verbal descriptions of what respondents’ say they do or how they feel about something. Responses cannot always be taken as accurate descriptions of what the respondents actually do or really feel about something. It is obvious that when we know, other people are watching us; we tend to behave in a way we believe is socially acceptable and desirable. It is a common tendency to reply in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others. Some responses could have been a result of this. During data collection I tried to minimise this tendency through face to face meetings and through detailed Research Information Sheet and by assuring them that there is no right or wrong answer and strict maintenance of anonymity of their identification.
Secondly some respondents were approached through postal surveys and these respondents may not have perceived themselves to be in a survey situation, and thus I expect more open and fair personal information or vice-versa as they might have been more careful if I got their response with their names on the envelope.
· Monitoring the Answers
About 100 questionnaires were sent via post to the respondents. While I provided detailed information about the project and also about my contact details, it is possible that some respondents may not have understood the questions in the manner in which they were intended. Also, there is no possibility to check whether the questionnaires were filled by the head teachers themselves or by their assistant or a computer teacher.
· Generalizability
The results of this study could not be generalise d to the entire country’s head teachers as this research examined a representative sample of head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan only. The attitudes of head teachers from other parts of the country i.e. Punjab, NWFP[4] along with AJ&K[5], FATA[6] and FANA[7] and other areas of Sindh, Balochistan that were not covered in the study could be different.
· Bias Responses
I had opted three cohorts of respondents for this study. I collected 100% data from two cohorts of participants through direct administration, while for the third cohort I mailed the questionnaire. The mailed questionnaire was the most frequently used method for surveying; however, it tends to result in lower response rates (Dillman, 1978) and thus more likely to obtain results that are biased in favour of the sample population most interested in the survey topic.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998), “Ethics in research are the principles of right and wrong that a particular group accepts” (p.49). The term research ethics indicates a moral enterprise between the researcher and the research participants (Vazir, 2004) and refers to the question of right or wrong, and the extent to which a research conforms to the ethical standards of conducting research (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). To ensure the dignity, privacy and interests of the participants, I used an anonymous survey, so that respondents’ privacy could be guaranteed or non-traceable (Cohen et al., 2002).
I obtained the permission through the consent form. I informed the research participants about the purpose of the research and expectations. I provided a complete information sheet to every participant about the research by clearly stating the purpose of the study along with the consent forms.
I also assured my respondents that the information provided by them would be used for the study purposes only. The privacy of the records was maintained and no one other than my research team members had any access to the data during analysis and report-writing. After completion of the study the data sets will remain with me for two years and will be destroyed in accordance to the Institute’s policy. Dissemination of research findings would be done in accordance to the ethical considerations of not harming the personal and academic lives of the participants involved.
SUMMARY
The purpose of this study was to explore the attitudes of head and deputy head teachers of Sindh and Balochistan, towards the use of computers for educational purposes in government primary and secondary schools. Representative respondents were identified for a survey. A questionnaire already developed and used in the developed countries was adopted. It was translated and then piloted before using it. Collected data were gathered via direct administration and registered mail. Two hundred twenty questionnaires were distributed and 185 were returned with a response rate of 84%. The data collection occurred over a 1½-month period which included questionnaire follow-ups with late responders. A 1½-month analysis period followed the data-collection period. Analysis was carried out using SPSS version 16 for each research question.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
The major aim of the study was to determine the attitudes of head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan towards the use of computers in education. A subsidiary aim was to explore the relationship between demographic characteristics of the participants and their attitude towards computers in education. This chapter presents the results of the study based on the analysis of the data collected from 185 participants selected from schools in Sindh and Balochistan.
DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES
· School Location
Participants represent both urban (n=103, 56%) and rural (n=82, 44%) areas. There were more participants from Sindh (n=139, 75%) as compared to Balochistan (n=46, 25%). Over representation of sample from Sindh reflects the ratio of Sindh-Balochistan in the Ed-Link’s course from where the participants were recruited for the study.
· Experience as Head teacher
It was found that majority head teachers (n=76 41%) had one to five years experience. Overall, the data indicates that majority head teachers had less than 11 years experience. There were only n=54 participants (29%) who had more than 11 years experience of working as head teachers.
· Gender
There were more male participants (n=118, 63.78%) as compared to female participants (n=67, 36.22%).
· Age
Though the participants have less experience as head teachers, majority (n=81, 43%) of them fell in the older age category (41 to 50 years[8]). The pattern of age and experience suggests that before becoming a head teacher, they serve for a long time as a teacher in the school.
· Qualification
The results show that both in academic and professional qualification, majority of the head teachers had a Masters’ degree.
TABLE 5 – RESPONDENTS’ QUALIFICATION
Academic Qualification (% - number)
Bachelor’ s Degree 13.5% (n=25)
Master’ s Degree 86.5% (n=160)
Ph.D. 0% (n=0)
Prof. Qualification Percentages (number)
B.Ed. 31.4% (n=58)
M.Ed. 67.0% (n=124)
None 1.6% (n=3)
· Computer Ownership
It was found that about 50% (n=93) of the participants own a personal computer, which could be a positive signal toward acceptance of computers. Further analysis shows that majority 80% (n=74) of respondents from Sindh had computer in their homes and only 20% (n=19) respondents from Balochistan had computer at home. Also, majority head teachers from the rural areas had computer at home (n=48, 52%) as compared to the ones from the Urban areas (n=45, 48%).
· Availability of Computers in Office
It was found that majority of the participants (n=118, 64%) did not have a computer in their offices. Also, majority head teachers from the rural areas had not computers available in their offices (n=74, 63%) as compared to the ones from the Urban areas (n=44, 37%).
· Computer Use
The results show that majority of the respondents (56%, n=103) were not using the computer at the time of data collection, while 44% (n=82) indicated that they were using a computer.
· Computer Training
Of the 185 respondents majority (n=145 78%) did not attend any formal training to use computers.
All demographic analysis statistics and illustrations are enclosed as Appendix D1.
COMPARISON
· What are the attitudes of the government schools’ head and deputy head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan toward the use of computers in education?
This section presents an overall attitude towards computer use in education as well as the differences between the two groups.
The results suggest that the overall attitude of the head teachers is positive (M=3.90; SD=0.49). The mean value is well above the mid-point of the scale and this indicates that the respondents have a positive attitude towards computer. A detailed analysis was carried out to explore respondents’ attitude towards computer on four sub-scales including educational impact, social impact, training needs and self-confidence. Figure one presents a comparative overview of the respondents’ score on four sub-scales.
FIGURE 1 – CATEGORY-WISE MEAN SCORE
The respondents exhibited a more positive attitude towards educational impact of computers (M=4.39; SD=0.60) and attributed high value to the need for training to use computers (M=4.43; SD=0.63). This is in contrast to their attitude towards the social impact of using computers (M=3.19 and SD=0.90) and their own self confidence (M=3.19 SD=0.90).
Comparison Across Province (Sindh and Balochistan)
Further analysis was carried out to compare head teachers’ attitude in the two provinces, Sindh and Balochistan. Through a graph (Figure 2) illustration it was checked, but a clear difference could not be identified. Hence to verify the existence of statistically difference among the opinion of head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan, Mann-Whitney test was carried out. According to the test, there was no evidence of statistically significant (Table 6) difference among the respondents as the result shows that Educational Impact p=.897, Social Impact p=.350, Training needs p=.728, Self Confidence p=.224 and Overall p=.344 confirming that according to province the head teachers and deputy head teachers do not think differently.
FIGURE 2 – PROVINCE WISE COMPARISON OF MEAN
TABLE 6 - TEST STATISTICSa
Educational Impact
Social Impact
Training Needs
Self Confidence
Overall
Mann-Whitney U
3156.500
2883.000
3089.000
2795.000
2899.500
Wilcoxon W
12886.500
3964.000
12819.000
3876.000
3980.500
Z
-.130
-.935
-.348
-1.216
-.946
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.897
.350
.728
.224
.344
a. Grouping Variable: In which Province your school is situated?
Comparison Across Location (Rural and Urban)
To compare, whether there is a difference of opinion among the respondents from rural and urban areas, two types of analyses were carried out. First, through a graph (Figure 3) both opinions were compared, where a very slight difference was visible, specifically in overall opinion. Secondly through t-test, to check, whether this slight difference, shown in graph is statically significant, Mann-Whitney test (Table 7) was carried out. This test verified that there is no evidence of statistically significant difference among the respondents from rural and urban areas. The result remained as Educational Impact p=.059, Social Impact p=.937, Training Needs p=.524, Self Confidence p=.620 and Overall p=.239, confirming that head teachers and deputy head teachers from rural and urban areas do not think differently about the use of computer in education.
FIGURE 3 - LOCATION-WISE COMPARISON OF MEAN
TABLE 7 - TEST STATISTICSa
Educational Impact
Social Impact
Training Needs
Self Confidence
Overall
Mann-Whitney U
3546.000
4143.500
3995.500
3994.500
3797.500
Wilcoxon W
8902.000
9499.500
9351.500
9350.500
9153.500
Z
-1.890
-.078
-.637
-.495
-1.177
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.059
.937
.524
.620
.239
a. Grouping Variable: What area is your school located?
All attitudinal analysis statistics and illustrations are enclosed as Appendix D2 while the comparison and sub-scale wise statistics and illustrations are enclosed as Appendix D3 and Appendix D4.
ASSOCIATIONS
· What are the demographic characteristics which contribute to the head teachers’ attitude towards computers?
Spearman correlation was used to find out the associations between attitude towards computer and various demographic characteristics for example age, gender, availability of computer in the office, computer use and prior computer training. A detailed correlation matrix is appended (Appendix D5).
Results show that computer use (r=.284; p<0.01) and prior computer training (r=.294; p<0.01) are significantly correlated with the overall attitude score. None of the other demographic characteristics (for example, gender, age, availability of the computer in the office and at home, qualification, and work experience) were associated with the overall attitudes. Association between demographic variables and individual sub-scale scores were also explored. Educational impact was found to be related only with prior computer training (r=.197; p<0.01). Social impact did not show significant relationship with any of the demographic variables. However, training needs and self confidence exhibited association with a number of variables. Training needs was associated with gender (r=.181; p<0.05), age (r=-.191; p<0.01), computer use (r=.242; p<0.01) and prior computer training (r=.313; p<0.01). Similarly, self confidence exhibited relationship with the participants’ gender (r=.172; p<0.05), availability of computer in the office (r=.166; p<0.05), computer use (r=.307; p<0.01) and computer training (r=.194; p<0.01). Based on these associations multiple regression models were developed to predict overall as well as sub-scales scores from various demographic variables. A total mean attitude score as well as sub-scale scores were used as outcome variables. All variables which appeared significant in bivariate correlation with the outcome variables were added in their respective models. Overall Attitude Model
Table eight presents the results of the last step of the multiple regression model developed for total mean attitude score.
TABLE 8 - OVERALL ATTITUDE MODEL
Demographic variables
B
β
p
r
Constant
3.337
----------
0.0001
---------
Use of computer
.208
.210
0.007
0.284**
Prior computer training
.216
.181
0.021
0.294**
* = p<.05; ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001. Last step of regression model presented in the table It shows that the use of computer (β = .21, p = 0.007) and prior computer training (β = .18, p = 0.021) contribute to the overall attitude of the respondents towards computer. However, it is evident that the use of computer has contributed more than prior computer training. Overall attitude model explains 9.9% of the variance (Adj.R2 = 0.099) in the total mean attitude score. The F-test shows the model has a significant linear relationship [F(2, 184) = 11.158, p=0.0001]. The results suggest that if the head teachers use computer and has attended training programme me, they are more likely to have a positive attitude towards using computers in education. Training Needs Model
Table nine presents the results of the last step of the multiple regression model developed for training needs score.
TABLE 9 - TRAINING NEEDS MODEL
Demographic variables
B
β
p
r
Constant
4.023
----------
0.0001
---------
Gender
.035
.027
.721
.181*
Age
-.065
-.091
.231
-.191**
Use of computer
.132
.104
.202
.242***
Prior computer training
.291
.189
.018
.313***
* = p<.05; ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001. Last step of regression model presented in the table Table nine presents training needs model. It is evident that four variables showed an association with training needs in bivariate correlations. However, in a multiple regression model, only prior computer training contributed to the outcome variable (score on training needs) significantly (β = .189, p = 0.018). Overall attitude model explains 6.1% of the variance (Adj.R2 = 0.061) in the mean training needs score. The F-test shows the model has a significant linear relationship [F(4, 180) = 4.013, p=0.004]. The results suggest that if the head teachers have attended training programmes, they are more likely to have a positive attitude towards training programmes for using computers in education. Self Confidence Model
Table ten presents the results of the last step of the multiple regression model developed for self confidence score.
TABLE 10 - SELF CONFIDENCE MODEL
Demographic variables
B
β
p
r
Constant
1.662
----------
0.0001
---------
Gender
0.346
.186
.008
.172*
Availability of Computer in the office
.151
.081
.260
.166*
Use of computer
.482
.268
.001
.301***
Prior computer training
.130
.060
.439
.194**
* = p<.05; ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001. Last step of regression model presented in the table Table ten presents self confidence model. It is evident that four variables showed an association with self confidence in bivariate correlations. However, in a multiple regression model, Gender (β = .186, p = 0.008) and Use of computer (β = .268, p = 0.001) retained their significance. Overall self confidence explains 12.2% of the variance (Adj.R2 = 0.221) in the mean self confidence score. The F-test shows the model has a significant linear relationship [F(4, 179) = 7.376, p=0.001]. The results suggest that if the female head teachers have a high self confidence on learning to use computers. Also, use of computers contributed to their high self confidence. It is evident from the three models that the use of computers and prior training significantly contribute towards head teachers’ overall attitude towards computers in education. However, in sub-scales models, prior training contributes to the training needs’ model while use of computer contributes to the self confidence model. SUMMARY
The chapter focused on the findings of the study, which examined the head and deputy head teachers’ attitude toward the use of computer in education. Descriptive results of demographic and attitudinal as well as comparison and correlations have been presented. The results regarding the research questions strongly indicate that the participants’ perceived attitude toward computers in education is positive, as majority of the respondents inclined toward strongly agree statement, which shows a total conformity and highly positive attitude toward educational impact and training needs.
Correlation analyses revealed significant associations between computer use and prior training, and computer attitudes. It is evident from regression analysis that the use of computers and prior training significantly contribute towards head teachers’ overall attitude towards computers in education. Appendix D6 provides a summary of findings.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This chapter starts with restating the research questions, which is followed by a summary of the findings. Results are discussed in light of the literature. The chapter concludes with recommendation for future studies and practice and a conclusion.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
o What are the attitudes of the head teachers and deputy head teachers of government schools from Sindh and Balochistan toward the use of computers in education?
o What are the demographic characteristics which contribute to the head teachers’ attitude towards computers?
SUMMARY OF THE KEY FINDINGS
The study results show that head and deputy head teachers from Sindh and Balochistan have an overall positive attitude towards using computers in education. They exhibit a more positive attitude towards educational impact of computers and attribute high value to the need for training to use computers. This is in contrast to their attitude towards the social impact of using computers and their own self confidence.
In general, the results indicate the importance of the use of computer in education; however, statistically significant differences were not observed between the opinions of two groups i.e. respondents from Sindh and Balochistan. Head teachers in both groups appear to be at the same position in their views on all sub scales of attitude toward computers in education.
Results show that computer use and prior computer training are significantly correlated with the overall attitude score. Further analysis revealed attitude towards educational impact to be related only with prior computer training while training needs and self confidence exhibited association with a number of variables. Training needs was associated with gender, age, computer use and prior computer training. Similarly, self confidence exhibited relationship with the participants’ gender, availability of computer in the office, computer use and computer training.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This section discusses the major results of the study. It is organise d under three main headings: a) comparing overall attitudes with demographic variables; b) perception of educational and social impact; and c) Overall perception of training needs and self confidence.
· Comparing Overall Attitudes with Demographic Variables
The study reveals that the head teachers, irrespective of their school location in terms of urban/rural or Sindh/Balochistan, are positive towards educational use of computers. This could be a positive sign indicating an overall readiness to adopt an educational innovation. So that they can play their role in leading the innovation and change process, these head teachers and deputy head teachers will need to understand the role and importance of computers in their work and also develop appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes to use this tool.
The results show that there was no significant difference in overall attitude of the head teachers who had a computer in their homes and those who did not. This finding also authenticates Warschauer (1996) findings, who also did not find any influence on attitude. However, this finding is in contrast with Shields (1986) and Yuen (1988) who found a significant difference of attitude among those who had and who did not have computer at home.
Age did not seem to have any relationship with the attitude toward computer use in Education. This is consistent with Akbulut (2008) where no difference in attitude toward computers was found. In studies which involved younger respondents, age appears as a factor affecting the attitude. However, since in this study, most participants belonged to the digital migrants’ group (Prensky, 2001); age did not appear to play a significant role. However, there was a correlation among age and trainings needs as younger respondents were more inclined toward getting computer trainings than older ones.
Experience as head teachers did not seem to affect the attitude. In Pakistan only 25% head teachers are directly recruited, while most other senior teachers are promoted to the position of head teachers (Memon & Bana, 2005).
Gender and attitude toward computer use has been the focus of many studies resulting three types of outcomes; i.e. no difference at all among gender (Altun, 2008; Akbulut, 2008), difference with male more positive attitude (Brosnan & Lee, 1998; Balka & Smith, 2000; Pelgrum & Plomp, 1993), and difference with female more positive attitude (Hashim & Mustapha, 2004; Fančovičová & Prokop, 2008). The current study does not support the initial two types of findings, i.e. no difference at all among gender and difference with male more positive attitude, but negates these findings of the previous researches which have shown the consequences that female head teachers tended to use computers less even when given equal access (Muira, 1987). So, it is an interesting study to know about the gender difference according to attitude toward computer in Pakistani context. This research confirms Hashim and Mustapha’s (2004) finding as female respondents were having statistically significant positive attitude toward training needs and self confidence than male respondents, while the same findings were also explored by Fančovičová and Prokop.
· Perception of Educational and Social Impact
Computer integration process has many barriers to overcome. Trying to overcome the barriers, certainly changes must be brought in the learners’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and vision. The previous researches (Serhan, 2007) in the same line revealed that principals had positive attitudes toward the use of technology in teaching and their perceived educational impact was positively high. Serhan’s research findings also showed that not only were the principals willing to support the use of technology in their schools but that they were also willing to improve their knowledge, abilities and skills to facilitate the integration of the technology into the curriculum. These results indicate that school principals viewed technology as an enhancement to the classroom that will motivate students to learn in an interesting environment, which also contributes to the improvement of students' achievement and increase their participation and interaction with their teachers. Resulting on the same lines the current research findings show that school principals feel comfortable using the technology and realize its possible applications in education then they can help facilitate its incorporation into the curriculum. This attitude predicts that a positive attitude starting from the school leadership can spread to the teaching faculty in the school and hence to the classroom and the students. The respondents’ inclination toward educational impact of computers in education was in strong agreement or in other words the head and deputy head teachers’ attitude showed a strongly favouring opinion. The findings depict that most respondents are not using computers currently, but they are exposed to the benefits of computer usage in education, which could be the result of growing and easily accessible media and television, through which, these head teachers perceived a positive attitude towards the educational impact of computers. Another research has identified that head teachers have to build knowledge, based on how to routinely integrate computers (Scheffler & Logan, 1999) from media and society.
The analysis showed that respondents were not quite positive toward the social impact of computers in education. This was the only area towards which participants were having negative attitude and this seemed due to the lack of computer skills and lack of self confidence (Houtz & Gupta, 2001), as the majority of respondents were not having any formal computer trainings. This negative attitude might stem from two reasons, a fear because of a lack of computer skills, and no prior knowledge about how to use computer in their schools (Compeau & Higgens, 1995a). However, researches have recommended that provision of more opportunities to learn computers (Wilson, Notar & Yunker, 2003) can positively enhance the attitude toward computers in education socially and educationally. The negative attitude can be converted to positive through proper computer trainings, which will ultimately lead to a positive change in perception.
However, the present study found, there is a strong correlation between attitude and lack of computer skills, because of this lacking in skills and awareness the perceived attitude toward social impact of computers is not much positive and they seem undecided whether computer use in education brings negative or positive social impacts. Ultimately their self confidence was natural to remain low.
· Perception of Training Needs and Self Confidence
Prior research suggests that for a successful implementation of computers school head teachers must use computers and model their use for their staff (Tiede, 1992). If this modelling is successful, the staff may then model the use of computers for their students. Research also suggests that when the head teachers do not have positive attitude toward computer use, or do not inspire or support a culture of computer use in education, it could inhibit the computer integration process (Anderson & Dexter, 2000).
Computer’s integration in education is on its initial phase in Pakistan, and for it to become a reality, head teachers need to be trained and also use computers as part of their regular practice. The results of the study suggest a positive attitude towards training for computer use. This also indicates that the head teachers are aware of the importance of learning to use computers. However, at the same time, a small number of them have actually received trainings to use computers. This could be indicative of a situation where these head teachers do not have access to appropriate training programmes for learning to use of computers in educational management practices.
The findings in this study showed that level of self confidence in computer use is correlated with positive computer attitudes, supporting previous research (Shashaani, 1997). Using computers in home and office more frequently and developing a variety of computer related skills and techniques increases one’s knowledge of the computer as a whole. This broadens one’s learning perspective and potential that in turn promotes a positive feeling towards the computer use (Houtz & Gupta, 2001). However, self confidence was found significantly high among the respondents who have computer in their office, which predicts that respondents having computers in their offices have access to use computer and ultimately their confidence level is significantly higher than the respondents, who do not have computers available in their offices. Moreover, the positive relationship between self efficacy and the use of computers was confirmed in many studies, and self efficacy was accepted as a determinant of computer use (Bandura, 1997; Compeau & Higgens, 1995a; Mcilroy, Sadler & Boojawon, 2007).
While there is a general positive attitude towards receiving trainings to use computers, a large majority of them did not use it and lacked overall self confidence. Evans-Andris (1996) found that individuals who lack computer knowledge and skills may feel less confident about using computers. Likewise this study’s results show that more than 56% of the respondents did not use computer and exhibited a low self confidence. Boyd (1998) and Taiwo (2009) also suggest that the lack of computer skills could result in increased fear of computers. They identify that effects of training on the perceptions of individuals are significant.
Need of computer trainings to increase the positive attitude has been identified by Davis (1989). At the same time, Torkzadeh and Dyke (2002) did not find training as an influential factor to change users’ attitudes towards computers as they found that attitudes towards computers seemed to have changed over time, especially when the computers are used as part of regular practice. Therefore, while there is a need to provide the head teachers with opportunities to gain computer knowledge and skills, the professional development programmes must explicitly focus on inculcating positive attitudes towards implementing computer in schools. Clearly, one shot workshop or a training programme me may not be sufficient in changing head teachers’ attitude and they must be allowed opportunities to use computers as part of their regular practice. Head Teachers’ successful use of computers could also encourage teachers to initiate and implement change in schools.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this research, following recommendations can be made for practice.
1. Head teachers should be provided with computer training opportunities that concentrate on how to effectively integrate computer as administrative and instructional tool. Such programmes should focus on knowledge, skills and attitudes.
2. Head teachers should be given opportunities to continuously use computers in their practice. This is likely to increase their self confidence and it may encourage the use of computers among teachers and students.
3. Effective use of computers in educational management and teaching and learning should be incorporated in all teacher education programmes.
· Recommendations for Further Researches
Since this was an exploratory study, it is recommended that further studies be conducted to examine the impact of computer teaching and learning as there will be more schools provided with computers in the future in Pakistan.
It is recommended that same study should be conducted in order to explore and to provide more information about the different attitudes by including head teachers, teachers and students as respondents.
This study can also be replicated on a larger sample including head teachers from all the four provinces, FANA, FATA and AJ&K of Pakistan. Then a research may include comparison of the results of this study against the larger sample using a longitudinal design to examine computer attitudes over time.
Further studies are recommended to examine other variables than those this study investigated. The most significant finding of this study revealed was that the vast majority of the participants were not computer trained but even then most of them perceived the implementation of computers into classroom to be beneficial tools for teaching and learning. So, it can be investigated that how this positive attitude has been developed and perceived by head teachers.
CONCLUSION
This study required to explore and describe the attitudes of government primary and secondary school head and deputy head teachers’ attitude toward the use of computers in Pakistani schools. This study concludes that overall, the results showed that in general, and the head teachers are in favour of using computer in education. This positive attitude is an important indicator of willingness and first step in effective integration of computes in education. Almost all of the head teachers were willing and ready to participate in courses and trainings about computer usage, which reveals the need for professional development. If we expect head teachers to provide the vision and understanding needed to guide the development and implementation of computers in school, we have to encourage them to increase their computer competence (Beaver, 1991). However, we should not forget the fact that it’s not every head teacher’s attitude in the country today. The need for further development and use among head teachers is highly necessary with appropriate computer training intervention plans. It is necessary that head teachers themselves should take advantage of the several on-going in-service training on computers by participating with enthusiasm and partnering with organisers to expand the tenure of such training or workshops. It will not be out of place however, if the ministry of education and local government education authorities gradually provide computers and infrastructure in all the government schools, so as to encourage head teachers and teachers to use them. Teacher training and professional development oriented policies should support computer related teaching models that encourage playing an active role in teaching/learning activities. It should be linked to the development of life-long learning and professional practices that enable head teachers to keep in touch with computer developments, new knowledge and research on teaching/learning. Computer training for head teachers must include a comprehensive experience with practical applications. Such trainings will encourage maximum integration of technology into the daily performance of head teachers. These appropriate computer training intervention plans will increase further the current positive attitude of head teachers.
This paper may have left many questions unanswered that provide starting points for further research, which have been discussed in recommendations. This study will be useful for policy makers, providers of professional development programme s for head teachers like AKU-IED and Ed-Links project and for system level decision makers to support mechanism and strategies to assist head teachers to develop their knowledge, and skills. Thus, head teachers will understand the critical role that they play in facilitating the implementation of computers in schools to improve teaching, learning and administrative processes. As, the final word, now schools need leaders, not bosses, who help to develop a clearer vision and shed light in the moments of dark confusion.
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[1] AKU-IED – Aga Khan University Institute for Educational Development.
[2] Aga Khan University Institute for Educational Development
[3] Dr. Phil Nagy, Professor Emeritus, University of Toronto.
[4] NWFP – North West Frontier Province.
[5] AJ&K – Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
[6] FATA – Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
[7] FANA – Federally Administered Northern Areas.
[8] At least one participant mentioned that he/she was 60+. It was surprising as according to the Government employment rule, employees typically retire at the age of 60.
